Another locally led uprising against taxation in 1825 was put down by the Ottomans shortly before Ibrahim Pasha, the son of EgyptвЂ™s ruler Muhammad Ali Pasha, launched another invasion of Palestine from the south in 1831. In 1799, French forces led by Napoleon Bonaparte, having recently invaded Egypt, stormed up the coast of Palestine, conquering Gaza, Jaffa, and Haifa before launching an unsuccessful siege of Acre. Later in the eighteenth century, local notable Zahir al-Umar al-Zaydani carved out a sphere of local autonomy in the Galilee. In the early eighteenth century, for example, a local uprising against the Ottoman governor of Jerusalem-known as the naqib al-ashraf rebellion-was triggered by repressive policies and taxation. Yet despite relative calm in religious matters, Palestine was also periodically the site of local, regional, and global political struggles. These regulations and understandings were based on accumulated customary practice and included rights acknowledged by earlier Muslim rulers and the decisions of Muslim courts in support of these rights, as well as Christian and Jewish commitments to adhere to customary practice.

At the same time, the Ottomans acknowledged Christian and Jewish rights to sites of religious significance, managing a complex arrangement of privileges and access rights to these sites through a system known as the status quo. Sovereignty over Jerusalem held special significance for the Muslim empire, which early on embarked on projects to rebuild the cityвЂ™s walls and to renovate the Dome of the Rock (1537-1540). This rule was marked by the integration of local elites into networks of state power (particularly taxation) as well as the stateвЂ™s establishment and support of religious and charitable institutions. This marked the beginning of four centuries of nearly uninterrupted Ottoman rule over Palestine.

The Ottoman forces defeated the Mamluk armies and conquered Bilad al-Sham, including Palestine. In 1516, the Ottoman Empire-founded by Turkic tribesmen in Anatolia, who then established their capital on the ruins of the Byzantine Empire in Constantinople-moved against the Mamluk rule in the Levant.

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